Moral Communities
Moral Communities are an essential theory to facilitate rehabilitation and full restoration of various inmates throughout the Criminal Justice process. But this is not its only application. Moral Communities have been consistently recognized throughout history. Its benefit is, once this behavior of self-regulation is learned, its language translates back into communities. Yet a moral community based on God invoked a personal responsibility to remain accountable in private, and discern the spiritual influence of our thoughts as they arrive inside our minds. As citizens assimilate to the standard of moral communities, they inherently adapt their behavior to uphold the expectations set forth by God.
Author Byron Johnson cites that current programs lack the aspect of spiritual transformation. Thus, Johnson ascribes to the theory of moral communities, thereby utilizing a “biblically based program with an overt emphasis on spiritual growth and moral development with the expectation that this approach will substantially enhance achieving the secular and correctional goal of rehabilitation. There exist many benefits to building moral communities. Johnson notes of one observable benefit, that “[t]he ongoing presence of volunteers, facilitators, and mentors bolsters the environment,” (Johnson, B., p. 119). Critics dispute that “the majority of studies reviewed do not utilize longitudinal or experimental designs and rely upon mainly cross-sectional samples;” calling its evidence “especially intriguing in light of the fact that so many researchers continue to overlook religion,” (Johnson, B., p. 79). But, as Christian apologist Mike Licona notes, pre-established “[n]arratives also create problems for historians when attempting to select the best explanation for historical data,” (Licona, M., p. 74).
Byron Johnson cites that, “[a]n idle mind is the devil’s workshop. This widely recognized adage is not found in scripture, as some might assume. Rather it is an English proverb. There are a number of variations of this proverb, but they tend to follow the same basic theme: people who don’t have something particular to keep them occupied will likely be tempted to commit some kind of inappropriate behavior,” (Johnson, B., p. 74). Johnson rephrases the English Proverb, in that, “[t]he more one is involved in religious activities, the less likely one will be involved in criminal acts, (Johnson, B., p. 74).
As the Apostle Paul scribed to the government of Galatia, “I say, then, walk by the Spirit and you will certainly not carry out the desire of the flesh,” (Galatians 5:16; CSB). God’s message scribed through Paul bears immense applicability in contemporary polity. Johnson adds that in “areas with high church membership and attendance rates represented “moral communities,” while areas with low church membership were more “secularized communities,” (Johnson, B., p. 75). Johnson writes “Stark predicted religion would deter delinquency in moral communities, but there would be little or no effect of religiosity on individuals residing in secularized communities. The moral-communities hypothesis provided an important theoretical framework for understanding why religion reduced delinquency in some studies, while other studies found religion had no significant impact on delinquency,” (Johnson, B., p. 75).
But Byron Johnson’s position is not unique. But “[n]umerous observations and interviews based on visits to the program during day and evening hours as well as aftercare visits [confirm] a growing confidence among staff and prisoners alike in the effectiveness” of the programs, (Johnson, B., p. 121). Morality is an essential characteristic to maintaining consensus within communities. Those who strive to acclimate themselves to moral communties will find themselves confronted with the factor familiar to all reformed Christians—gratitude. After God grants mercy over our lives; gratitude can be shown by pursuing and stewarding success and position ourselves to best contribute our abilities and abundance back into our communities. This object of gratitude has led to the reformation of countless individuals, most notably the Apostle Paul—previously Saul—who would persecute and kill Christians; later scribing most of the New Testament. Specifically, Johnson notes that, “[n]umerous observations and interviews based on visits to the program during day and evening hours as well as aftercare visits confirmed a growing confidence among staff and prisoners alike in the effectiveness of the program,” (Johnson, B., p. 122). Thus, the challenge changes from within the participant—from a position of viewing themselves as a nefarious perpetrator or a victim to the system, Johnson believes the concept of moral communities allows for convicts to “view themselves as good people who have been forgiven for their past mistakes,” (Johnson, B., p. 121).
The Historicity of Moral Communities
Moral Communities have been an essential practice since God’s creation of Earth. Throughout the millennia; prophets, disciples, apostles, Athenians, early church fathers, philosophers, and contemporary thinkers all reiterate the same principles. Personal responsibility relies on accountability to an external source; whether brethren or through a personal relationship with Christ. Yet both must be established; (1) a personal relationship with God; and (2) engagement and contribution to the community. The process ought to be no different for inmates seeking to take accountability for their existence, repent for their mistakes, and work to redevelop themselves into a reputable and influential upstanding citizen. Thus, God’s abundance has worked to reform individuals for generations. And the process remains no different today.
Politically, the need for Moral Communities was recognized in Ancient Athens. Similarly, the concept of communities to shape morality has been historically described by Jesus Christ, Plato, Hobbes, Locke, Hume, Rousseau, Descartes, Luther, Machiavelli, Smith, Hegel, Dewey, alongside contemporary pastors, apologists, and political theorists.
Plato wrote, “nearly everybody is a pauper who is not a ruler. And may we be so bold as to affirm that there are also many criminals to be found in them, rogues who have stings, and whom the authorities are careful to restrain by force? Certainly, we may be so bold,” (Plato; Jowett, B., p. 478)
Thomas Hobbes (1588–1679) wrote that “For where there is no community, there can bee no Excommunication; nor where there is no power to Judge, can there bee any power to give Sentence,” (Hobbes, T., p. 517).
John Locke (1632–1704) believed that “The Power that every Individual gave the Society, when he entered into it, can never revert to the Individuals again, as long as the Society lasts, but will always remain in the Community; because without this, there can be no Community, no Commonwealth, which is contrary to the original Agreement,” (Locke, J., p. 120).
David Hume (1711–1776) opined about moral community and personal responsibility, that “[e]ither every nobleman shares the power as a part of the whole body, or the whole body enjoys the power as composed of parts, which have each a distinct power and authority, (Hume, D., p. 15).
Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712–1778) wrote that “A citizen owes the state all the services that he can offer it whenever the sovereign asks for them; but the sovereign for its part cannot impose on its subjects any burden which is useless to the community: it cannot even want to impose it; for under the law of reason, as under the law of nature, nothing can be done without a cause, Rousseau, J., p. 68)
René Descartes (1596–1650) believed that “It is thus quite certain that the constitution of the true religion, the ordinances of which are derived from God, must be incomparably superior to that of every other,” (Descartes, R., Loc. 3484).
Martin Luther (1483–1546) adds “Therefore it is a wickedly devised fable…that it is for the Pope alone to interpret the Scriptures…the keys were not given to St. Peter alone, but to the whole community.”
Niccolò Machiavelli (1469–1527) noted that “when a government originates with, and derives its authority from the whole community, there is no reason why the community, if it withdraw that authority, should seek to injure any except the prince from whom it withdraws it, (Machiavelli, N., p. 3679).
Adam Smith (1723–1790) provided strong insight on the prospect of Moral Communities; writing, “[t]o the interest of this great community, he ought at all times to be willing that his own little interest should be sacrificed. Whatever concerns himself, ought to affect him no more than whatever concerns any other equally important part of this immense system. We should view ourselves, not in the light in which our own selfish passions are apt to place us, but in the light in which any other citizen of the world would view us, (Smith, A., p. 1456).
Georg Wilhem Friedrich Hegel (1770–1831) defined a moral community as a Family; writing, [t]his moment which expresses the ethical order in this element of immediacy or mere being, which, in other words, is an immediate consciousness of self (both as regards its essence and its particular thisness) in an other”— and hence, is a natural ethical community — this is the Family,” (Hegel, G., p. 427).
John Dewey (1859–1952) suggested “[i]t is mutual cooperation of economic, social, and scientific factors which has brought about a great increase of individual use and enjoyment for public ownership,” (Dewey, J., p. 1843).
Apologist Craig Blomberg writes that "[a]fter a religious leader forms a community, he or she must teach them how to live," (Blomberg, C., p. 61). Blomberg adds that “Mark 9:37 nicely illustrates the church as the custodian—the keeper and dispenser—of the kingdom: “Whoever welcomes one of these little children in my name welcomes me; and whoever welcomes me does not welcome me but the one who sent me.” If welcoming Jesus means welcoming God, then the community of Jesus’ followers is now the new community of God’s people,” (Blomberg, C., p. 61).
Author Andrew Hogue writes that, “I wonder if we should not flip the usual question on its head, asking not how much (or how little) religion the political sphere should tolerate, but rather—from the point of view of religion—asking what sort of politics religion might require in order for religious believers to play out their proper role as religious citizens,” (Hogue, A. p. 261).
Pastor Bill Johnson of Bethel Church writes that “wisdom is one of the most necessary gifts God has made available for all of us to live by. Strangely, although I think wisdom is the one thing that people desire the most, they don’t seem to have a language for it. Or perhaps it is that they don’t have an understanding of what they need," (Johnson, B., p. 61).
Similarly, Pastor Dharius Daniels attests that counseling is an ongoing conversation, that requires “listening to people who have more experience than you do and are a little wiser than you are. But it’s also necessary to be around peers who know you and know your situation, and with whom you can engage in some back-and-forth discussion," (Daniels, D., p.194).
Pastor Steven Furtick of Elevation Church declares that, believers must “[u]se gratitude to engage your faith in God. He is the source of what you have and what you need. You’re not just being grateful for things: you’re being grateful to the one who gave them to you," (Furtick, S., p. 224). Furtick adds, “[t]hat’s something that sometimes gets stripped away when gratitude is taught as a practice. We shouldn’t be grateful to the thing; we’re grateful to the God who gives the thing. If he takes it away, he can give us another one. There is deep inner stability in that kind of faith,” (Furtick, S., p. 224). Thus, human beings who form a relationship with God, exhibit greater personal accountability than those who do not fully know God. But it is never too late to come to Christ.
The great political theorist Alex Jones of Infowars.com reminds us that “[t]he most important thing is knowing how to garden, have a good community of friends, and learn how to hunt and fish,” Jones, A., p. 114). Alex Jones adds that “One needs to have a strong moral compass and, I believe, a deep faith in God to overcome the obstacles these demons will place in front of good and honest people," (Jones, A., p. 376).
These prolific men understand the same essence of personal regulation in the presence of God. Whilst some of these men were not Christians, all understood there was something bigger than the individual—and that isolation leads to depravity and detriment. Thus, moral communities stand as a symbolic beacon of understanding that can be navigated toward, by all men; no matter their actions.
Here, in the case of Criminal Justice, inmates will be renewing their minds, rather than shaping their behavior on culture. As the Apostle Paul scribed in the New Testament, “Therefore, I urge you, brothers and sisters, in view of God’s mercy, to offer your bodies as a living sacrifice, holy and pleasing to God—this is your true and proper worship, Romans 12:1 (NIV). Thus God warns us through Paul; “[d]o not conform to the pattern of this world, but be transformed by the renewing of your mind. Then you will be able to test and approve what God’s will is —his good, pleasing and perfect will,” (Romans 12:2; NIV).
Steps to Development
Johnson notes various steps to development including, “classes, free time, inmate-mentor sessions, and during individual and group devotionals (e.g., Bible study, prayer, or personal reflection). Direct discussions and interviews with individual [InnerChange Freedom Initiative] IFI members as well as interaction and dialogue in various group settings yielded valuable feedback for the evaluation.” (Johnson, B., p. 121).
Notably, Johnson concludes that personal progress, is judged relative to the participant. Johnson adds “the interviews conducted with [the IFI] program staff and various volunteers provided additional insights into the spiritual progress of inmates over time,” (Johnson, B., p. 121). The InnerChange Freedom Initiative (IFI) participant takes a sample from the inmate’s initial entrance into the program; producing a point of reference. Next, this reference point is utilized to trac progress, and produce data. The participant’s progress can then be seen by other inmates, the program staff, and policymakers who may consider mirroring IFI to create similarly successful programs. Most importantly, the participant himself will be able to recognize the progress; reap the benefits of his reformation; and relay the process unto others.
Segregation of Moral Community
Johnson records that “[f]or at least the first year, there was a concerted effort to largely segregate [InnerChange Freedom initiative] IFI members from the general prison population. Prison Fellowship believed very strongly that in order to create a healthy spiritual climate in the prison, it was necessary to keep these two prison populations apart,” (Johnson, B., p. 118). Segretation of the two groups assisted in the formation of a moral community within the prison; whose abundance began to draw more inmates into the program.
Yet after the moral community was segregated, the participants began to experience His Holy Spirit directing them to evangelize from within the prison. Johnson recollects that, “IFI members began asking if they could interact with general population inmates. Conversely, many general population inmates, though initially suspicious of the program, began inquiring about potential involvement in the program,” (Johnson, B., p. 119).
Johnson attests that “[r]eligion can reduce drug use, domestic violence, delinquency, gang activity, prison recidivism, and other forms of negative behavior., (Johnson, B., p. ). This is evident within the U.S. prison population. There are many differences between IFI-style moral communities and the prison’s general population. Byron Johnson writes that “[u]nlike the general population inmates, IFI participants do not have televisions in their living areas, (Johnson, B., p. 118). Further, Johnson reveals that adopting lifestyle changes starts with personal revelation; “IFI participants were routinely heard greeting volunteers or other first-time visitors to the program with statements like ‘Hey, man, it’s time to hug a thug,’” (Johnson, B., p.). Whilst strange, it displays empirical evidence that a change has begun to occur from within. Johnson believes that segregation assisted in removing the inmates from environments that produce negative influence or regressive characteristics that could detract from the participant’s progress.
In the Old Testament, the prophet Isaiah scribed the instructions for union; writing, “[b]ehold, you shall call a nation that you do not know, and a nation that did not know you shall run to you,” (Isaiah 55:5a; ESV). Isaiah’s powerful words continue to resonate meaning in contemporary. His reasoning was concise and clear; “because of the LORD your God, and of the Holy One of Israel, for he has glorified you.” Isaiah 55:5b; (ESV). To achieve this, Isaiah scribed that man ought “[s]eek the LORD while he may be found; call upon him while he is near;” but Isaiah added “let the wicked forsake his way, and the unrighteous man his thoughts; let him return to the LORD, that he may have compassion on him, and to our God, for he will abundantly pardon,” Isaiah 55:6, 7 (ESV). If God can abundantly pardon the most wicked of men, so ought we mirror his mercy unto the Criminal Justice System. The Lord reminds us that following Him will fundamentally change us; “[f]or my thoughts are not your thoughts, neither are your ways my ways, declares the LORD. For as the heavens are higher than the earth, so are my ways higher than your ways and my thoughts than your thoughts. (Isaiah 55:8, 9; ESV).
Conclusion
As Johnson’s IFI program was able to implement moral communities—using Biblically-based strategic concepts—and reimagine the potential for inmates; so should this plan be adopted unto all corrections across the nation. Segregating participants from inmates was shown to catalyze the inner foundation of Christ, allowing for reformation from the inside out. Once this is established, the reformed participants can steward their abundance back unto the inmates; as many inquired to the nature of the division. Byron Johnson’s theory of Moral Communities is applicable to corrections facilitates across the nation; as it begins the implementation of inner restoration—a trait necessary for those who will be released on parole. Staff within contemporary Criminal Justice system ought not to rely on reformation to begin at parole; instead it should work to facilitate this change the moment inmates enter the corrections system. To better understand best practices for tomorrow we must look to past achievements; and implement objective moral values into Criminal Justice policy initiatives.
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